Throughout church history, eschatological expectation has been both a catalyst for holiness and a crucible for error. From the Montanist movement of the second century to the Millerites of the nineteenth century, anticipation of Christ’s return has at times fostered spiritual excess and social upheaval (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1998).[1] In recent years, a resurgence of end-times enthusiasm, fueled by social media, political uncertainty, and cultural anxiety, has given rise to movements claiming prophetic insight into the timing of the rapture or tribulation. While most evangelicals who affirm a pre-tribulation rapture do so within the bounds of orthodoxy, some of these movements exhibit behavior characteristics of cultic systems. These behaviors include authoritarian leadership, exclusive truth claims, information control, and fear-based manipulation. Understanding how this occurs requires distinguishing between doctrinal conviction and sociological deviation.
Sociologist Robert J. Lifton’s seminal work Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism (1961) identifies eight criteria by which cultic environments can be recognized. These include milieu control, mystical manipulation, demand for purity, cult of confession, sacred science, loading of language, doctrine over person, and dispensing of existence. Similarly, Steven Hassan’s (2015) BITE Model (Behavior, Information, Thought, and Emotional control) provides a contemporary framework for assessing cultic influence. From a theological perspective, cults may be defined as religious movements that distort orthodox doctrine and employ manipulative practices to secure absolute loyalty to a leader or ideology (Martin, 2008). The essence of cultism lies not merely in what is believed but in how belief is structured, enforced, and lived out. A legitimate theological position can therefore become cultic when it is used as a tool of control or deception.
The pre-tribulation rapture view, popularized by John Nelson Darby (1877) and disseminated through the Scofield Reference Bible, teaches that the Church will be “caught up” (1 Thess. 4:17) prior to a seven-year tribulation period. This interpretation rests on a dispensational distinction between Israel and the Church and seeks to harmonize prophetic passages from the Gospels, Paul’s epistles, and the books of Daniel and Revelation. In mainstream evangelical theology, this view remains within the bounds of orthodoxy, promoted by theologians such as Charles Ryrie (1965), John Walvoord (1979), and J. Dwight Pentecost (1958). The pre-tribulation position emphasizes imminence and therefore encourages believers to be ready for Christ’s return. In addition, Paul’s exhortation to “Encourage one another with these words” (1 Thess. 4:18) anchors the rapture in pastoral care rather than speculation about end-time events. Thus, belief in a pre-tribulation rapture does not constitute cultic behavior. The problem arises when this hope is transformed into hype; when the interpretive humility of proper hermeneutics gives way to dogmatic certainty; and when the focus shifts from Christ’s sovereignty and victory over the powers of darkness to human-made certainty about current events that portend the rapture.
However, Christian theology has long recognized several interpretive frameworks concerning the timing and nature of Christ’s return. While the pre-tribulation rapture is the most familiar expression within dispensational circles, it is by no means the only position. Historic and contemporary theology identify at least seven perspectives. The first three are variants of dispensationalism.
- The Pre-tribulation view: the belief that the Church will be raptured before a seven-year tribulation period (1 Thess 4:16-17).
- The Mid-tribulation view: the view that the rapture will occur midway through the tribulation, preserving the Church from the period’s most intense judgments.
- The Post-tribulation view: the conviction that the Church will endure the tribulation and be gathered to Christ at His visible second coming (Matt 24:29-31).
- The Historic premillennial view: this view teaches that the Church is the fulfillment of Israel and anticipates a post-tribulation rapture. This differs from dispensational premillennialism, which holds that Israel and the Church are distinct entities.
- The Amillennial view: this viewteaches that Revelation’s thousand years are symbolic of Christ’s current reign from heaven. It interprets the “millennium” from Revelation 20 as a symbolic representation of the current church age, which began with Christ’s resurrection and will continue until his Second Coming.
- The Postmillennial view: this view teaches that the return of Jesus will occur after a long period of peace and prosperity, often referred to as the “millennium,” which is brought about by the gradual spread of the gospel and the establishment of Christian ethics and righteousness throughout the world.
- Preterist and Partial Preterism view: Preterism is a view on eschatology that believes most or all biblical prophecies have already been fulfilled, primarily in the first century AD. Partial preterism is a preterist view that holds that some prophecies, such as the Great Tribulation and the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, have been fulfilled. In contrast, others, such as the final resurrection and second coming, remain future.
Each model arises from careful engagement with end-time texts, and faithful interpreters may disagree while remaining within the bounds of orthodoxy. The diversity of views underscores the hermeneutical humility appropriate to eschatological study. Prophecy is given not to satisfy curiosity about end-time events but to cultivate perseverance and holiness. Recognizing alternate views guards believers against the exclusivism that can breed cultic tendencies, while reminding the Church that certainty lies not in the sequence of end-time events but in the Savior who fulfills God’s promises.
However, cultic deviation often begins when a leader claims exclusive access to divine knowledge (God spoke to them, for example). In eschatological contexts, this manifests as date-setting or prophetic absolutism. The leader becomes the arbiter of revelation rather than a servant who shepherds God’s people through the Word. The theological claim “no one knows the day or hour” (Matt. 24:36) is subtly reinterpreted to “no one knew until I was shown.”
Eschatology is particularly susceptible to cultic deviation because it concerns ultimate, unknowns about the end of the world. This author recently watched a video where the “teacher” claimed that not believing in a pre-tribulation rapture was a denial of the gospel and would result in damnation. In addition, many adherents of this view hold that, while one may not lose their salvation, denying this doctrine constitutes grounds for breaking fellowship with believers who hold a different view. For example, this author had a former staff member accuse him of heresy for not holding this view and subsequently blocked him on social media. Hence, when followers are told that salvation, survival, or spiritual safety depends on obedience to either the leader’s apocalyptic timeline or to the exclusive claims of an end-times view, ordinary discernment erodes. In cults, believers are often encouraged to separate from outside influences, whether from family or their church, and encouraged to depend solely on the group or the ideology they affirm. Another hallmark of cultic deviation is the insistence that the group alone possesses the truth, or that its position is the only “true” interpretation of prophecy, excluding alternate views. This exclusivity transforms legitimate conviction into theological Gnosticism. This view holds that secret knowledge is available only to the initiated or the in-group. Further, in cultic settings, eschatological certainty is often monetized. Followers are encouraged to sell possessions, quit jobs, or contribute financially to “spread the message.” As a result, those who adhere to the cultic view can experience strained or broken relationships as loyalty to the group or ideology supersedes loyalty to Christ’s broader body.
The Millerite revival, led by William Miller, illustrates how apocalyptic zeal can mislead believers. Based on calculations from Daniel 8:14, he interpreted the 2,300 days in the verse as 2,300 years. By starting his calculation from a decree in 457 BC, found in Ezra, he concluded that Christ would return in 1844. The group was so confident in his prediction that they sold their possessions and created “ascension robes” in anticipation of the event. The failure of the prophecy became known as the “Great Disappointment” and led to widespread disillusionment (Wikipedia contributors, 2025). However, the sociological patterns were clear: centralized authority, based on Miller’s unchallenged interpretation of scripture, led to date fixation, culminating in emotional coercion as emotional appeals were used to induce preparation for the event. While the later Seventh-day Adventist Church emerged from this milieu and shifted theologically, extremist offshoots such as the Branch Davidians (History.com editors, 2025) demonstrate how prophetic absolutism can metastasize into lethal fanaticism (Lifton, 1961).
The Worldwide Church of God, led by Herbert W. Armstrong, provides another example. Armstrong’s teachings combined British-Israelism with apocalyptic prophecy, claiming that Western nations were literal descendants of ancient Israel and were destined for end-times judgment if they failed to turn back to God. He claimed that the end of the world would begin around 1972 and culminate in the return of Christ in 1975 (Armstrong, 1954). Under his leadership, the Worldwide Church of God displayed classic cultic traits, which included exclusive truth claims, financial control, and repeated false prophecies of tribulation. After Armstrong’s death, the denomination underwent a remarkable theological reformation, renouncing its heretical elements and embracing evangelical orthodoxy—an important case of post-cultic redemption (LeBlanc, 2009).
More recently, Harold Camping and Family Radio claimed that Christ would return to rapture His church on May 21, 2011. His claims rested on a numerical certainty he believed he discovered in scripture. Through his studies, he developed a specific, rigid system of mathematical interpretations that led him to arrive at that date (Camping 1992). Camping calculated the number of days between a date he believed was the crucifixion of Christ (April 1, 33 A.D.) and the predicted date of the Rapture (May 21, 2011). As such, he assigned absolute meaning to numbers and their combinations, such as 5 (“atonement”) x 10 (“completeness”) x 17 (“heaven”), which, when squared, equaled 722,500, the number of days he calculated between the cross and the rapture of the church (Matson, 2024). Thus, Camping’s system claimed to have uncovered the absolute truth of the biblical timeline, leading to a precise prediction that the rapture would occur on that specific date. In response, his followers liquidated assets to finance global billboards proclaiming “The Bible Guarantees It.” When the prediction failed, many suffered psychological trauma and financial ruin. Camping’s subsequent public repentance was rare but revealing—even sincere believers can be ensnared by false certainty masquerading as faith.
Then there is an extreme example, the Heaven’s Gate Cult. Though not theologically Christian, Heaven’s Gate fused pre-tribulation escape motifs with UFO mythology. Members believed their souls would ascend aboard a spaceship following a mass suicide (Robsinson,1997). The group’s authoritarian isolation, characterized by charismatic leadership that exercised complete control over its members, gave rise to eschatological hype and exemplifies the dangers of misplaced hope (Hassan, 2015).
Contemporary online communities perpetuate similar dynamics, creating virtual echo chambers that claim end-time prophecies are imminent. As such, social media has created a new genre of prophetic communities where apocalyptic speculation circulates unchecked (Bagavathi et al., 2019). Self-proclaimed “watchmen” produce videos linking current global events to rapture predictions. Many of these online networks exhibit micro-cultic dynamics: although they lack a central authority, they share a shared isolation of thought, demonization of dissent to their views, and generate emotional dependence on the group narrative (Lerman et al., 2023). The danger lies not in their doctrinal position but in the psychological influence that conditions believers to anticipate imminent crises. In such a condition, they risk losing the ability to practice a faith that is patient in tribulation (Rom. 12:12). Additionally, they sacrifice intellectual humility by allowing no critique or deviation from their position.
The antidote to cultic eschatology lies in recovering biblical humility. Scripture consistently warns against eschatological presumption. Jesus’ teachings in Matthew 24:36 and Acts 1:7 place God’s timeline beyond human calculation. The proper response is not to speculate about dates and imminent crises, but to live faithfully before the Lord. Theologian George Eldon Ladd rightly argued that the New Testament does not encourage curiosity about the time of the end but rather faithfulness until the end (Ladd, 1956).
However, cultic drift thrives in isolation. As such, local church pastors, denominational leadership, theologians, and seminaries can serve as guardrails against the cultic authoritarianism that can reemerge. Church leadership should teach eschatology as the larger motif of biblical community, not as private revelation given to a select few, but as part of the broader story of redemption concerning God’s people. It should be emphasized that the New Testament’s eschatological emphasis is profoundly Christocentric rather than catastrophist (Mathison, 2022).[2] The rapture and second coming are extensions of the gospel, not escapism from the world. When believers fix their hope on Christ and His mission rather than speculate on how current events fulfill prophecy, anxiety about current events gives way to faith. Further, churches should intentionally train believers to evaluate theological claims critically. Teaching Lifton’s and Hassan’s models of undue influence can empower congregations to recognize manipulative systems (Hassan, 2015; Lifton, 1961). As Paul instructed the Thessalonians, “Test everything; hold fast what is good” (1 Thess. 5:21).
Further, eschatology, when properly taught, shapes ethics. The early church’s expectation of Christ’s return produced urgency in evangelism, holiness in conduct, and resilience in the face of suffering. In cultic contexts, those same virtues are inverted: fear outpaces faith, withdrawal from the world undermines mission, allegiance to a leader or ideology replaces devotion to Christ, and resilience in the face of suffering is replaced by the unbiblical expectation that God will not allow His people to suffer. Pastors and theologians must therefore approach eschatological teaching not as a speculative venture but as a formative theology—shaping the moral and missional posture of the Church in a turbulent world. As Paul told Titus, the grace that teaches us to look for the “blessed hope” also trains us “to renounce ungodliness” (Titus 2:11–13). True eschatology sanctifies, where false eschatology distorts one’s focus.
The line between a healthy pre-tribulation expectation and cultic distortion is defined not by what is believed but by how it is practiced. When eschatology is rooted in Scripture, accountable to the church, and centered on Christ, it produces courage and hope. When it is detached from humility, community, and the gospel, it becomes a mechanism of fear and control. The task of the contemporary Church, therefore, is to reclaim eschatology as an essential discipleship tool—to teach the hope of Christ’s return without surrendering to the hysteria of manmade speculation or current events. In doing so, the Church guards the blessed hope from becoming a blinding obsession. As Jesus Himself admonished, “Blessed is that servant whom his master will find so doing when he comes” (Matt. 24:46).
Leaders are therefore called to model a faith that is steady in expectation and strong in service. The role of the shepherd is not to stir up speculation about current events, but to cultivate faithfulness in believers. In teaching about the end times, leaders must remind the church that the same Christ who will return in glory is the One who walks with His bride today. Eschatological truth, when grounded in grace, equips disciples not to escape the world but to engage it with love, hope, and endurance.
References
Armstrong, H. W. (1954). The United States and Britain in prophecy. Worldwide Church of God.
Arunkumar Bagavathi, Pedram Bashiri, Shannon Reid, Matthew Phillips, Siddharth Krishnan
Bagavathi, A., Bashiri, P., Reid, S., Phillips, M., & Krishnan, A. (2019). Examining Untempered Social Media: Analyzing Cascades of Polarized Conversations. https://arxiv.org/abs/1906.04261
Camping, H. (1992). 1994? Vantage Press.
Darby, J. N. (1877). Synopsis of the books of the Bible. Morrish.
Encyclopedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Montanism: history, teachings,
heresy, founder, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Montanism
Hassan, S. (2015). Combating cult mind control. Freedom of Mind Press.
History.com Editors. (2025, May 28). Waco Siege ends; Branch Davidian compound burns
| April 19, 1993 | HISTORY. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-19/branch-davidian-compound-burns
Ladd, G. E. (1956). The blessed hope. Eerdmans.
LeBlanc, D. (2009). The Worldwide Church of God: Resurrected into Orthodoxy. Christian
Research Institute. https://www.equip.org/articles/the-worldwide-church-of-god-resurrected-into-orthodoxy/
Lerman, Feldman, K., He, D., Rao, Z. & Ashwin. (2023). Affective Polarization and Dynamics of Information Spread in Online Networks. https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.18553
Lifton, R. J. (1961). Thought reform and the psychology of totalism. University of North Carolina Press.
Martin, W. (2008). The kingdom of the cults. Thomas Nelson.
Mathison, K. (2022, December 1). Eschatology: A whole-Bible concept. Tabletalk Magazine.
Matson, J. (2024, February 20). Judgment Day Math: The Numbers behind Harold Camping’s May 21 Claim. Scientific American.
Pentecost, J. D. (1958). Things to come. Zondervan.
Robsinson, W. (1997, Dec. 1). Heaven’s Gate: the End. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Volume 3, Issue 3, 1 December 1997, JCMC334,
Ryrie, C. C. (1965). Dispensationalism today. Moody Press.
Walvoord, J. F. (1979). The rapture question. Zondervan.
Wikipedia contributors. (2025, June 2). Great disappointment. Wikipedia.
[1] The Montanist movement predicted the imminent return of Christ and the descent of the New Jerusalem to earth. They believed the Holy Spirit was guiding them to prepare for this event, which they expected to occur in the Phrygian town of Pepuza. This emphasis on the imminent Second Coming was a central part of their theology and led many followers to move to Pepuza to await the coming kingdom.
[2] The emphasis of the New Testament’s eschatology is Christocentric, meaning it centers on the person and work of Jesus, rather than catastrophist, which sensationalizes end-time disasters. While the New Testament does include apocalyptic imagery, its core message is not a fear-based focus on destruction, but a hope-filled one grounded in Christ’s past, present, and future work.
Faith Formation Ministries 